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We are the New Covenant Israelites, of the faith of Abraham; reconciled through a Spiritual adoption to eternal life through our Messiah Yah'shua, by the grace of Yahweh. |
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The Natural Congregation of Yahweh is what the secular world, modern traditional 'Christians', and the modern 'Jews', would phrase as, "The Natural Church of God" |
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Christmas: Curious Origins of a Popular Holiday What do evergreen trees, reindeer, mistletoe and yule logs have to do with the birth of Yah'shua the Messiah? And was He really born on Dec. 25? Discover the real history of Christmas! Every year around the middle of November, the decorations are going up, the parties are being planned, the presents are being bought. People around the world will again be celebrating what they perceive to be “Christmas”. More than any other religious holiday, Christmas is associated with the name of the Messiah. The word Christmas is short for "the Christ's mass," instituted by the Catholic Church and continued by many Protestant churches. Yet, curiously, the Bible records nothing about the apostles or early Congregation observing Christmas. History shows that it wasn't celebrated until hundreds of years after Yah'shua the Messiah lived on earth, and long after the apostles had passed from the scene. Even more curious are the surprising circumstances under which Christmas came to be observed, and the many aspects of today's Christmas celebrations-including the date, Dec. 25-that have nothing to do with Yah'shua's birth, but do have a lot to do with ancient pre-Christian religions. What does history show us about the origins of the world's most popular holiday? It's quite an eye-opening story!
New Catholic Encyclopedia on Christmas: The New Catholic Encyclopedia, in discussing the unlikelihood of a Dec. 25 date for Yah'shua the Messiah's birth and how that particular date was chosen, gives some insight into the holiday's origins: "Why, then, were December 25 and January 6 chosen for the celebration of the Messiah's birth? Several theories are offered in explanation. Some actually believed December 25 was the birthday of the Messiah and tried to prove it by arguing from the conception of St. John the Baptist. Assuming, gratuitously, that Zachary was high priest and that the Day of Atonement fell on September 24, John would have been born on June 24 and the Messiah 6 months later, on December 25. This theory is now considered completely untenable." Continuing in the same source: "L. Duchesne suggested that the date of Christmas was determined from March 25, the traditional date of the Crucifixion. If He died on March 25, He must also have been conceived on this date and thus have been born 9 months later on December 25. More recently H. Engberding has tried, unsuccessfully, to defend a comparable position. "According to the hypothesis suggested by H. Usener, developed by B. Botte, and accepted by most scholars today, the birth of the Messiah was assigned the date of the winter solstice, because on this day, as the sun began its return to the northern skies, the pagan devotees of Mithra celebrated the birthday of the invincible sun. "Christmas originated at a time when the cult of the sun was particularly strong at Rome. This theory finds support in some of the Church Fathers' contrasting the birth of the Messiah and the winter solstice. Though the substitution of Christmas for the pagan festival cannot be proved with certainty, it remains the most plausible explanation for the dating of Christmas" (1967, Vol. 3, p. 656, emphasis added throughout). This encyclopedia admits that arguments for a Dec. 25 birth of Yah'shua the Messiah simply aren't credible (see "Biblical Evidence Shows Yah'shua the Messiah Wasn't Born on Dec. 25 - below). It acknowledges that this date was chosen because of popular existing festivities honoring the ancient sun god Mithra and celebrating the winter solstice.
Ancient origins of Christmas: Man, Myth & Magic is an illustrated encyclopedia of mythology and religion. In its article on Christmas, we uncover a treasure trove of research material on this holiday's origins and history. "Christmas has its origin in two ancient pagan festivals, the great Yule-feast of the Norsemen and the Roman Saturnalia. Extending from Advent, which begins on 30 November or the Sunday nearest to it, to Candlemas Day on 2 February, it was close enough to the winter solstice to acquire many of the associations of the Norse ceremony: the Yule-log, the evergreen decorations in houses and churches, even the Christmas feast itself. These elements were combined with the Saturnalia of the Romans to provide the basis for the early Christian festival. "During the Saturnalia, gifts were made by the wealthy to the poor in honor of the golden age of liberty when Saturn ruled the known world, and slaves were allowed to change places and clothing with their masters. They even elected their own mock king who, for the period of the festival, ruled as a despot. The Saturnalia involved the wildest debauchery, and was a festival worthy of Pan himself. "Naturally it came under heavy censure from the early Congregation and despite the fact that Yah'shua the Messiah and the saints gradually replaced the pagan deities it was long considered completely out of character with the Christian ideal. However, the festival was far too strongly entrenched in popular favor to be abolished, and the [Catholic] Church finally granted the necessary recognition, believing that if Christmas could not be suppressed it should be preserved in honor of the Christian God" (1995, Vol. 3, p. 418). Do you grasp what this is telling us? We saw earlier that the Dec. 25 date for Christmas came from ancient pre-Christian festivals. Here we see that the same ancient pagan celebrations honoring other gods were continued, with the Catholic Church simply relabeling the festivities and customs as Christian!
Christmas banned for its paganism: The Man, Myth & Magic encyclopedia reveals more of the strange story of Christmas as it continued after the ancient celebrations were adopted by the Catholic Church: "Once given a Christian basis the festival became fully established in Europe with many of its pagan elements undisturbed. It was only in the 4th century that 25 December was officially decreed to be the birthday of the Messiah, and it was another 500 years before the term Midwinter Feast was abandoned in favor of the word Christmas. "Even then on the Continent the festival continued to show many features inherited from the Saturnalia. In particular, the Feast of Fools was a wild debauch reminiscent of the pagan past. The Normans when they invaded England in 1066, introduced a Master of Ceremonies into the English Christmas. Known as the Lord of Misrule, his counterpart in Scotland was called the Abbot of Unreason. ". . . The undisguised pagan element in Christmas had often provoked criticism from extreme Protestants but the festival was not really affected by their beliefs until the Puritans came to power in the 17th century. Christmas was attacked as 'the old heathens' feasting day to Saturn their god' and carols were forbidden. Finally, 25 December was proclaimed a fast day in 1644. The new rule was enforced by the army, which spent much of its time pulling down the greenery that festive 'pagans' had attached to their doors. "In Scotland the prohibition was enforced with great rigor. This anti-Christmas attitude spread to Puritan territories in America. The Church established special services for Christmas in Boston during the 1690s, but many civil authorities strongly opposed this move. And it was not until some 150 years later that Christmas first became a legal holiday in the United States, in Alabama in 1836" (pp. 418-419). Of course, Christmas has long been accepted throughout much of the world. Now it's so popular-not to mention commercially important-that it's almost inconceivable to realize that at one time it was outlawed for its pagan associations and practices!
An ancient nativity celebration reborn: The noted British anthropologist and scholar Sir James Frazer wrote a classic work on ancient myths and religious practices titled The Golden Bough. His findings on the ancient origins of our Christmas practices and customs are revealing: ". . . There can be no doubt that the Mithraic religion [the worship of Mithra, the Persian sun god, popular in the Roman Empire] proved a formidable rival to Christianity, combining as it did a solemn ritual with aspirations after moral purity and a hope of immortality. Indeed the issue of the conflict between the two faiths appears for a time to have hung in the balance. An instructive relic of the long struggle is preserved in our festival of Christmas, which the [Catholic] Church seems to have borrowed directly from its heathen rival. "In the Julian calendar the twenty-fifth of December was reckoned the winter solstice, and it was regarded as the Nativity of the Sun, because the day begins to lengthen and the power of the sun to increase from that turning-point of the year. The ritual of the nativity, as it appears to have been celebrated in Syria and Egypt, was remarkable. The celebrants retired into certain inner shrines, from which at midnight they issued with a loud cry, 'The Virgin has brought forth! The light is waxing!' "The Egyptians even represented the new-born sun by the image of an infant which on his birthday, the winter solstice, they brought forth and exhibited to his worshippers. No doubt the Virgin who thus conceived and bore a son on the twenty-fifth of December was the great Oriental [i.e., Middle Eastern] goddess whom the Semites called the Heavenly Virgin or simply the Heavenly Goddess; in Semitic lands she was a form of Astarte [also known as Easter]. "Now Mithra was regularly identified by his worshippers with the Sun, the Unconquered Sun, as they called him; hence his nativity also fell on the twenty-fifth of December. The Gospels say nothing as to the day of the Messiah's birth, and accordingly the early Congregation did not celebrate it. "In time, however, the Christians of Egypt came to regard the sixth of January as the date of the Nativity, and the custom of commemorating the birth of the Savior on that day gradually spread until by the fourth century it was universally established in the East. "But at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century the Western [Catholic] Church, which had never recognized the sixth of January as the day of the Nativity, adopted the twenty-fifth of December as the true date, and in time its decision was accepted also by the Eastern Church. At Antioch the change was not introduced till about the year 375 A.D." (1993, p. 358). Sir James Frazer studied the thread of Christmas customs and practices through ancient times and reached an inescapable conclusion: Christmas is but a relic of the worship of the pagan god known by the Persians and Romans as Mithra or Mithras, relabeled with a Christian name. A pagan festival relabeled: Why did the early Catholic Church adopt and relabeled this ancient pagan celebration? Frazer explains: "What considerations led the ecclesiastical authorities to institute the festival of Christmas? The motives for the innovation are stated with great frankness by a Syrian writer, himself a Christian. 'The reason,' he tells us, 'why the fathers transferred the celebration of the sixth of January to the twenty-fifth of December was this. It was a custom of the heathen to celebrate on the same twenty-fifth of December the birthday of the Sun, at which they kindled lights in token of festivity. "In these solemnities and festivities the Christians also took part. Accordingly when the doctors of the [Catholic] Church perceived that the Christians had a leaning to this festival, they took counsel and resolved that the true Nativity should be solemnized on that day and the festival of the Epiphany on the sixth of January. Accordingly, along with this custom, the practice has prevailed of kindling fires till the sixth.' "The heathen origin of Christmas is plainly hinted at, if not tacitly admitted, by Augustine when he exhorts his Christian brethren not to celebrate that solemn day like the heathen on account of the sun, but on account of him who made the sun. In like manner [Pope] Leo the Great rebuked the pestilent belief that Christmas was solemnized because of the birth of the new sun, as it was called, and not because of the nativity of the Messiah. "Thus it appears that the Christian [Catholic] Church chose to celebrate the birthday of its Founder on the twenty-fifth of December in order to transfer the devotion of the heathen from the Sun to him who was called the Sun of Righteousness" (1993, pp. 358-359). The truth about Christmas's origins is simple: One of the ancient world's most popular celebrations-a festival that originated in sun worship and honoring pagan gods-was renamed and reborn as traditional Christianity's most popular celebration.
What would Yah'shua say? Today, would Yah'shua the Messiah recognize the religion that professes to follow Him? Think about it: If you lived in the Holy Land in the time of Yah'shua and you observed Christmas, you would be alone, for no true Israelite ever kept Christmas during Yah'shua's life on earth. Further, if you saw Yah'shua or the apostles walking through the narrow passageways of Old Jerusalem or the dusty roads of Judea and you invited them to join in your Christmas celebration, what would they say? Since Yah'shua the Messiah is the same yesterday, today and forever (Hebrews 13:8), and all Scripture is inspired by Yahweh (2 Timothy 3:16), they might remind you of what Yahweh's Word says about incorporating pagan customs into your worship: ". . . Do not inquire after their gods, saying, 'How did these nations serve their gods? I also will do likewise.' You shall not worship Yahweh your God in that way; for every abomination to Yahweh which He hates they have done to their gods . . . Whatever I command you, be careful to observe it; you shall not add to it nor take away from it" (Deuteronomy 12:30-32). Yah'shua Himself might repeat to you what He said to the Pharisees, who considered their traditions and customs more important than obeying Yahweh's Word: "These people draw near to Me with their mouth, and honor Me with their lips, but their heart is far from Me. And in vain they worship Me, teaching as doctrines the commandments of men" (Matthew 15:8-9). Christmas, mentioned nowhere in the Bible, is a "commandment" of men. The apostle Paul might remind you of the words he wrote to Congregation members in Corinth, a city steeped in pagan religious practices: ". . . What fellowship has righteousness with lawlessness? And what communion has light with darkness? And what accord has the Messiah with Belial? Or what part has a believer with an unbeliever? "And what agreement has the temple of Yahweh with idols? For you are the temple of the living God . . . Therefore 'Come out from among them and be separate, says Yahweh. Do not touch what is unclean, and I will receive you.' . . . Therefore, having these promises, beloved, let us cleanse ourselves from all filthiness of the flesh and spirit, perfecting holiness in the fear of Yahweh" (2 Corinthians 6:14-17;7:1).
Does it really matter? Sadly, for the bulk of modern Christianity these scriptures-which help define what true New Covenant Israelite faith is and is not-mean very little. Most of the 2 billion professing Christians on earth today observe Christmas and other extra biblical holidays without ever giving them a second thought. Most will never take the time to look into their beliefs to learn their true origins, though information such as that found in this article can be found in virtually any modern library or on the Internet. Though the basic facts about the origins of Christmas are spelled out in almost any reputable encyclopedia, most people will not look long and hard at their traditions and customs to see if they square with the Bible. It's especially ironic to see the articles that appear in many newspapers each year -often written by well-intentioned but misguided clergymen-who recite the pagan origins of Christmas and its trappings but conclude that it doesn't matter because it's now celebrated for a good cause. We have to wonder how they can reconcile that view with the clear scriptures quoted above. What about your beliefs? Yah'shua the Messiah says that those who worship Yahweh "must worship [Him] in spirit and truth" (John 4:24). Are your beliefs and worship firmly grounded in biblical truth, or in ancient fables?
Biblical Evidence Shows Yah'shua the Messiah Wasn't Born on Dec. 25: History convincingly shows that Dec. 25 was popularized as the date for Christmas, not because the Messiah was born on that day but because it was already popular in pagan religious celebrations as the birthday of the sun. But is it possible that Dec. 25 could be the day of the Messiah's birth? "Lacking any scriptural pointers to Yah'shua’s birthday, early Christian teachers suggested dates all over the calendar. Clement. . . picked November 18. Hippolytus . . . figured the Messiah must have been born on a Wednesday . . . An anonymous document[,] believed to have been written in North Africa around A.D. 243, placed Yah'shua’s birth on March 28" (Jeffery Sheler, U.S. News & World Report, "In Search of Christmas," Dec. 23, 1996, p. 58). A careful analysis of Scripture, however, clearly indicates that Dec. 25 is an unlikely date for the Messiah's birth. Here are two primary reasons: First, we know that shepherds were in the fields watching their flocks at the time of Yah'shua's birth (Luke 2:7-8). Shepherds were not in the fields during December. According to Celebrations: The Complete Book of American Holidays, Luke's account "suggests that Yah'shua may have been born in summer or early fall. Since December is cold and rainy in Judea, it is likely the shepherds would have sought shelter for their flocks at night" (p. 309). Similarly, The Interpreter's One-Volume Commentary says this passage argues "against the birth [of the Messiah] occurring on Dec. 25 since the weather would not have permitted" shepherds watching over their flocks in the fields at night. Second, Yah'shua's parents came to Bethlehem to register in a Roman census (Luke 2:1-4). Such censuses were not taken in winter, when temperatures dropped below freezing and roads were in poor condition. Taking a census under such conditions would have been self-defeating. Given the difficulties and the desire to bring pagans into Christianity, "the important fact then . . . to get clearly into your head is that the fixing of the date as December 25th was a compromise with paganism" (William Walsh, The Story of Santa Klaus, 1970, p. 62). If Yah'shua the Messiah wasn't born on Dec. 25, does the Bible indicate when He was born? The biblical accounts point to the fall of the year as the most likely time of Yah'shua's birth, based on the conception and birth of John the Baptist. Since Elizabeth (John's mother) was in her sixth month of pregnancy when Yah'shua was conceived (Luke 1:24-36), we can determine the approximate time of year Yah'shua was born if we know when John was born. John's father, Zacharias, was a priest serving in the Jerusalem temple during the course of Abijah (Luke 1:5). Historical calculations indicate this course of service corresponded to June 13-19 in that year (The Companion Bible, 1974, Appendix 179, p. 200). It was during this time of temple service that Zacharias learned that he and his wife Elizabeth would have a child (Luke 1:8-13). After he completed his service and traveled home, Elizabeth conceived (verses 23-24). Assuming John's conception took place near the end of June, adding nine months brings us to the end of March as the most likely time for John's birth. Adding another six months (the difference in ages between John and Yah'shua) brings us to the end of September as the likely time of Yah'shua's birth. TOP ^
"EASTER" and "CHRISTMAS" and Yahweh'S HOLY DAYS Christians generally, accept and celebrate the "Good Friday" - "Easter Sunday" concept of the Messiah's crucifixion and resurrection. Was it really a Friday - Sunday event? What about 3 days and 3 nights? Does it Matter to Yahweh? The Bible says "prove all things", and just as every other part of the Bible is alive and meaningful in our daily lives, so is the phrase "prove all things". The Bible provides all of the necessary resources to prove all things, to help motivate us to search the Scriptures diligently, and to meditate on them. In other words Yahweh really does want us to know the truth, not to simply "accept" what is palmed off as the truth by others - even (and especially) so-called "religious experts" and the "tradition of men" promoters, that call themselves "Christians"! Yah'shua was asked point blank by the doubting Pharisees for a sign - proof of his Messiahship. Yah'shua answered, "An evil and adulterous generation seeketh after a sign; and there shall no sign be given it, but the sign of the prophet Jonah: for as Jonah was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of Man be THREE DAYS AND THREE NIGHTS in the heart of the earth". (Matt. 12:39-40) Yah'shua's statement has tremendous import - the significance is overwhelming. He declared that THE ONLY SIGN He would give to prove He was the Messiah was that He would spend "three days and three nights in the heart of the earth". The Pharisees demanded proof - Yah'shua offered but one evidence, which was not the fact of the resurrection itself, but the length of time He would remain in His grave, before being resurrected. Yah'shua staked His claim to being your Savior and mine upon remaining exactly three days and three nights in a tomb. If He failed in this sign, He must be rejected as an impostor! No wonder Satan has caused unbelievers to scoff at the story of Jonah and the "whale" and set up a tradition that denies Yah'shua as the Messiah. This one and only supernatural proof ever given by Yah'shua for His Messiahship greatly bothers "traditional" Christians. Any attempt to explain away this sole proof for the Messiah's divinity - deity - are ludicrous in the extreme, but explain them away they must, or their "sacred Good Friday - Easter Sunday" tradition collapses. Yah'shua does not lie - He said clearly there shall be no other sign for this proof, "but the sign of the prophet Jonah". And that's all that is really needed, because when read into context with all other scripture on the matter, it convincingly "proves all things" as it should.
Some
"experts", according to various encyclopedia etc, imply that Yah'shua
was only in the tomb half as long as He expected - or that three days
and three nights really only means three "periods" of day or night -
or that being placed in the tomb "Friday" at sunset and rising
"Sunday" morning, is 2 nights and 1 day, but that's what Yah'shua
really meant! The Bible proves that Yah'shua knew exactly how long a
"day" was and exactly how long He would spend in the grave. In
How then do
so-called wise and prudent "theologians" know that Yah'shua was
crucified on "Good Friday" and rose "Easter Sunday"? They don't!
Because it is not true. It is merely tradition, which we have been
taught from childhood and excused throughout our adult years as
something that's okay and really doesn't make any difference as long
as we celebrate the "event" not the date. What poor Israelites we are
when we have to "excuse" our Christian traditions. Yah'shua clearly
and simply warned against "making the word of Yahweh of no effect
through your traditions" in
Friday to
Sunday just does not make 3 days. 3 days must be important or Yah'shua
would not have said so. In
The
Crucifixion day was called "the preparation" or day before the
Sabbath. This day ended at sunset according to Bible reckoning - Lev.
23:32. Yah'shua cried out soon after the "ninth hour" or 3 o'clock in
the afternoon on the preparation day - Matt. 27:46-50,
This leads to
an intriguing conclusion. Three full nights and three full days after
that preparation day sunset, brings us to sunset. Which means the
resurrection occurred at sunset not sunrise! If Yah'shua rose at any
other time of day He could not have been 3 days and 3 nights in the
grave and He would have failed to prove by the sign He gave, His
Messiahship. The "preparation day" for the Sabbath is defined by
Any Jew can
tell you what a "high day" is. There are seven each year - all called
Sabbaths, and each year they fall on different days of the week.
(Leviticus 16:31, 23:24, 26-32 and 39 refers to all these annual holy
days as Sabbaths.)
All Bible texts say Yah'shua was crucified on the Passover. The Bible in Num.28:16-17, defines the Passover; "And in the 14th day of the first month [called Abib] is the Passover of Yahweh. And in the fifteenth day of the month is the Feast". The Hebrew calendar shows that in A.D. 31, the year Yah'shua was crucified, the 14th of ABIB which was the Passover, which is always the preparation day for the annual high day Sabbath, was on Wednesday, and the High Sabbath was on Thursday. There were 2 Sabbaths that week - the annual high Sabbath, and the weekly Sabbath which was the day of the resurrection. (Saturday using standard weekly Roman traditions.)
Yah'shua
rose from the dead as He said He would in
It is also
significant that as Daniel's prophecy in 9:24-27 says, Yah'shua was to
be cut off "in the midst of the week". This prophecy uses the day for
a year symbolism so that the "70 weeks" became a literal 7 years, with
the Messiah being "cut off in the midst", (after only 3 1/2 years of
teaching) and also in the middle day of a literal week. There is one
more final proof in the Bible. In
These scriptures seem to contradict themselves unless you accept the only possible explanation: After the annual high Sabbath, which was Thursday, the women purchased and prepared the spices on Friday, and then they rested on Saturday - the weekly Sabbath. The fact is that Yah'shua was crucified on a Wednesday (14th of ABIB, A.D. 31) and was resurrected on a Saturday (17TH of ABIB, A.D. 31), placed in the tomb near sunset, and rose out of the tomb near sunset. "Good Friday" and "Easter Sunday" are pagan myths; traditions of men, adopted by the early Roman Christian church and accepted as "okay" by almost all Christians today. Centuries old documents exist that evidence the Wednesday crucifixion and Saturday resurrection. A document entitled the "Didascalia Apostolorum", dating from around the year 200 A.D., mentions the last Passover Supper of Yah'shua and His disciples was on a Tuesday evening. It should be noted that the timing mentioned in the document also corresponds with the Biblical method of reckoning the week as starting with Sunday as the first day with the days beginning at sunset. The document states: "For when we had eaten the Passover on the third day of the week at even [Tuesday evening], we went forth to the Mount of Olives; and in the night they seized our Lord Yah'shua. And the next day, which was the fourth [day] of the week [Wednesday], He remained in the house [arrest] of Caiaphas the high priest". Clearly He was crucified that following Passover day of Wednesday. "Easter", from the ancient Assyrian and Babylonian goddess "Ishtar" is from old Teutonic mythology where it is known as "Ostern". The Phoenician name of the goddess was "Astarte", consort of Baal, the sun god, whose worship is strictly forbidden and denounced by the Almighty Yahweh of the Bible as the most abominable of all pagan idolatry. Yahweh condemned Solomon and took away the kingdom of Israel from his son for offering sacrifice to Molech - also Baal, the sun god.
Yahweh
commanded His people to observe Passover forever in
It is now a memorial to the Messiah's sacrifice, reaffirming year after year on its anniversary, the 14th of ABIB thru 17th of ABIB, the TRUE Israelite's faith in the broken body of the Messiah for our physical healing, and His blood for the remission of sins.
Satan has
deceived all western nations into discarding Yahweh's forever ordained
festival to commemorate the death of the true Savior of our sins, and
substituting it with the pagan counterfeit Easter! Scores of millions
are deceived into observing this heathen idolatry under the delusion
they are some how honoring the Messiah, the Son of Yahweh. Like blind
sheep they observe the traditions and customs of men. Yahweh says in
Yah'shua kept the Passover, Yah'shua taught the Passover, and Paul said in I Cor. 5:7-8; "The Messiah our Passover is sacrificed for us; Therefore let us keep the feast, not with old leaven... but with the unleavened bread of sincerity and truth". Even Yah'shua commanded; "this do ye, as oft as ye drink it, in remembrance of me". We are to do it in remembrance of Yah’shua's death as a memorial. The Apostles all kept the Passover and documented it long after the Messiah had risen. Does Yahweh care? Can we use ancient pagan festivals to honor the Messiah? Let Yahweh, as He has in the Bible answer the questions. Deut. 12:30-31: "Take heed...that thou enquire not after their gods, saying; `How did these nations serve their gods? even so will I do likewise'. Thou shalt not do so unto Yahweh thy God; for every abomination to Yahweh, which he hateth, they have done unto their gods'". In other words, Yahweh calls these customs abominations because they commemorate false ideas. Can you worship the Messiah or Yahweh in vain? The very words of the Messiah: "Howbeit in vain do they worship me, teaching for doctrines the commandments of men. For laying aside the commandment of Yahweh, ye hold the tradition of men...Ye reject the commandment of Yahweh that ye may keep your own tradition" (Mark 7:7-9). Assembling for worship of Yahweh under the guise of "Good Friday" and "Easter Sunday" is nothing but the tradition of men - and pagan tradition which Yahweh hates at that. Those who do so, disobey Yahweh's commandment to "worship Him in spirit and in truth" and such worship is utterly in vain - Yah'shua said so! Yah'shua's New Covenant did not in any way, imply to do away with the Old Covenant Commandments. Yah'shua reassured that we all should keep the Commandments - all of them. Yah'shua did do away with all of the old rituals and traditions in favor of faith - but all of the commandments remain. Yahweh commanded His people to keep His 7 annual high Sabbaths forever. Years later He gave His people (us) the 10 commandments, one of which reaffirmed the keeping of the Sabbath; the weekly Sabbath and the annual high Sabbaths, including the Passover - not Easter. Christmas: The words "Christ Mass" gravitated into the Congregation in the fourth century in the form of ordinances from the Roman Catholic church, copying former pagan rituals under the new name. The Catholic Encyclopedia says: "Christmas was not among the earliest festivals of the Congregation...the first evidence of the feast is from Egypt. Pagan customs, ancient, centering around the January calends gravitated to Christmas". The Roman church ordered it to be celebrated as an official Christian festival in the fifth century. The exact date of Yah'shua’s birth is unknown, as all authorities acknowledge. Though there are many scriptural inferences suggesting sometime in the early fall, probably September. Encyclopedia Britannica says: "certain Latins may have transferred the birthday of the unconquered Sun from January 6th to December 25th which was then a Mithraic feast. This feast of Sun worship and idolatry is what the Latins [Romans] claimed was invented by disciples of Cerinthus".
Today, we
have gotten Christmas from the Romans as set out above. They got it
from paganism, originating in ancient Egypt in the days of King Osiris
and Queen Isis, about 3000 B.C. After the death of King Osiris, his
wife propagated the evil doctrine of the survival of Osiris as a
spirit being. She claimed a full grown ever-green tree sprang up
overnight from a dead tree stump, which to her symbolized the
springing forth of new life from the dead Osiris. On each anniversary
of his birth, which was December 25th, she claimed that the dead king
would visit the evergreen tree and leave gifts on it. Yahweh warns us
in
The queen, through her scheming, became "Queen of heaven" and Osiris became "divine son of Heaven". Through the generations Osiris became known as the "divine sun" and later the SUN GOD of Baal. The Phoenicians referred to them as the "Mother and Child" (Isis and Osiris) as chief objects of worship. The worship of this "Mother and Child" as Baal the sun god spread to many countries and languages. The Roman Catholic church carried many of these old pagan customs and beliefs along with them into the new "Christianity", as the people were reluctant to give up their pagan traditions. Even the song "Silent Night, Holy Night" with its "Mother and Child" theme, stems in part from this era. Yahweh commands his faithful ministers; "Cry aloud, spare not, lift up thy voice like a trumpet, and show my people their transgression"! Among ancient pagans mistletoe was used at this festival of the winter solstice because it was considered sacred to the sun, due to its "miraculous" healing power. The pagan custom of kissing under the mistletoe was an early step in the night of revelry and drunken debauchery, celebrating the death of the "old sun" and the birth of the new at the winter solstice (shortest day of the year). Holly berries were also considered sacred to the sun god. The yule log is in reality the "sun log". "Yule" means "wheel" - the pagan symbol for the sun. Even the lighting of candles and fires as a Christian ceremony is merely the continuation of the pagan custom of encouraging the waning sun god as he reached the lowest place in the southern sky. St. Nicholas, a Roman Catholic Bishop was a legend for his surreptitious bestowal of dowries on the three daughters of an impoverished citizen, secretly on the "Eve of St. Nicholas" December 6th, subsequently transferred to Christmas day as "Santa Claus", the English phonetic sounding equivalent to "Saint Nicholas". From the Adam Clarke Commentary, volume 5, "The people of the east never approached the presence of kings and great personages without a present in hand. The custom is often noticed in the Old Covenant and still prevails in the east...as a continuance of the ancient pagan customs". The custom of giving presents invariably retards Yahweh's work, often setting it back at the Christmas season every year, rather than honoring the Messiah. If you want to honor someone, would you lavishly buy gifts for everyone else, trading back and forth, while not providing any gift for the honored one? But even though the exact date of Yah'shua's birth is unknown, should we not select some date and celebrate His birthday? Absolutely NOT! The celebration of birthdays is another pagan custom celebrated by sinners! The Catholic Encyclopedia: "In the scriptures, no one is recorded to have kept a feast or held a great banquet on his birthday. It is only sinners like Pharaoh and Herod who make great rejoicings over the day in which they were born into this world". Many modern Christians still reason that, even though Christmas and all its trimmings are pagan customs, honoring the false sun-god, we don't observe it to honor the false god - we observe it to honor the Messiah. But Yahweh answers in His Word; "Take heed to thyself that thou be not snared by following them [the pagans in their customs]...that thou enquire not after their gods. Saying, `how did these nations serve their gods? Even so I will do likewise', thou shalt not do so unto Yahweh thy God: for every abomination to Yahweh, which he hateth, have they done unto their gods" (Deut. 12:30-31). And Yah'shua says plainly this form of worship is utterly in vain (serves no purpose). TOP ^
Passover: Detailed Events and Chronology of the Messiah's Crucifixion and Resurrection
i) Summary Chronology of the Messiah's Crucifixion and Resurrection 1. The Sign of the Prophet Jonah 2. The Passover Pilgrimage 3. First Century Hebrew Traditions 4. The Time of the Resurrection 5. Two Key Days 6. Chronology: Friday Through Sunday 7. Chronology: Monday and Tuesday 8. Chronology: Wednesday and Thursday 9. Chronology: Friday Through Sunday
Summary Chronology of the Messiah'sCrucifixion and ResurrectionTuesday: Yah’shua the Messiah ate an early-evening Passover meal with His disciples at the beginning of Nisan 14, Hebrew reckoning, and instituted the New Covenant symbols (Matthew 26:26-28). Yah’shua was then betrayed by Judas, arrested and during the night brought before the high priest.
Wednesday: Yah’shua the
Messiah was crucified and died around 3 p.m. (Matthew 27:46-50). This
was the preparation day for the annual, not weekly, Sabbath, which
began that evening (Mark 15:42;
Thursday: This was the
high-day Sabbath, the first day of Unleavened Bread (John 19:31;
Friday: The high-day
Sabbath now past, the women bought and prepared spices for anointing
Yah’shua's body before resting on the weekly Sabbath day, which began
at sunset (end of Friday) (Mark 16:1;
Saturday: The women
rested on the weekly Sabbath, according to the Fourth Commandment
(Luke 23:56;
Sunday: The women
brought the prepared spices early in the morning while it was still
dark (Luke 24:1;
1. The Sign of the Prophet Jonah There are several preliminary details that we need to consider before we actually begin to set forth the chronology of the crucifixion week. Although they may seem unrelated on the surface of things, as the study progresses, we will see their importance and relevance. The Prophecy of Jonah "Then certain of the scribes and of the Pharisees answered, saying, Master, we would see a sign from thee. But he answered and said unto them, An evil and adulterous generation seeketh after a sign; and there shall no sign be given to it, but the sign of the prophet Jonas: For as Jonas was three days and three nights in the whale's belly; so shall the Son of man be three days and three nights in the heart of the earth." Matt. 12:38-40. Repeatedly the scribes and the Pharisees refused to accept the Messianic claims of Yah’shau. His words were not good enough for them. They wanted something more. They demanded an unmistakable sign. The Hebrews walked by sight, not by faith.
Yah’shau responded to their demand by
quoting
The Typology of Jonah Jonah's captivity in the great fish and his subsequent deliverance is a type of the death and resurrection of Yah’shua . The death and bodily resurrection of the Messiah after three days in the tomb is the sign that Yahweh is now using to authenticate the Gospel message. That's why the Apostle Paul wrote, "For I delivered unto you first of all that which I also received, how that the Messiah died for our sins according to the scriptures; And that he was buried, and that he rose again the third day according to the scriptures." I Cor. 15:3-4. Jonah was the only Old Covenant prophet who was ever sent away from Israel as a missionary to the Gentiles. He was sent to that great and wicked city of Nineveh. After passing through a death-illustrating experience and being restored to his commission, Yahweh used him to bring repentance to the Ninevites. At the time our Messiah gave the sign of Jonah to the Hebrews, He was about to depart from Israel. The religious leaders had rejected His Messianic claims and had persuaded most of the people to do the same. But before the Gospel of our Messiah would be carried to the Gentiles, it was necessary for Him to be crucified, buried for three days and three nights as Jonah was and resurrected to newness of life and commission. The importance of the sign of Jonah is that if Yah’shau did not spend exactly three days and three nights in the tomb, then the Gospel message is not being authenticated; Yah’shua 's words are in error and the Bible is not true. No wonder Satan is so eager to perpetuate the "Good Friday" crucifixion and the Sunday morning resurrection. For in so doing he is attacking Yah’shua, the Bible and the Gospel at the same time. 2. The Passover Pilgrimage The appropriate point to begin our detailed consideration of the crucifixion week is with an incident that occurred at Jericho. The healing of blind Bartimaeus stands at the beginning of the end of our Messiah's life on this earth. The Jericho Road
"And they came to Jericho: and as he
went out of Jericho with his disciples and a great number of people,
blind Bartimaeus, the son of Timaeus, sat by the highway side begging.
And when he heard that it was Yah’shua of Nazareth, he began to cry
out, and say, Yah’shua, thou son of David, have mercy on me. And many
charged him that he should hold his peace: but he cried the more a
great deal, Thou son of David, have mercy on me."
There is a significant point in Mark's record that we should not overlook. Bartimaeus called Yah'shua the "Son of David." This is the only place in Mark's Gospel that this title appears. Elsewhere Yah’shua is referred to as the "Son of man." But Bartimaeus called Him the "Son of David," and he was healed of his blindness. The spiritual blindness of the nation Israel, Yahweh's chosen people, is pictured by Bartimaeus' physical blindness. The Son of David, the Anointed One of Yahweh, had come to give sight to that spiritually blind nation. And in Jericho the Son of David once more showed His gracious power as Bartimaeus, who is a type of the remnant that will someday recognize Yah’shua of Nazareth as David's greater Son, had his vision restored. The Passover Feast was, by far, the greatest crowd gatherer of all Israel's annual feasts. The pilgrims were young and old. The aged who were unable to walk the entire distance rode upon the backs of donkeys. The crowded road and the plodding asses made for slow progress along the road. It is approximately 17 miles from Jericho to Bethany. Seventeen miles seems quite a short distance to us today because of our modern roads and means of transportation. But to the pilgrims of Yah’shua's day the distance was not short and the journey was not a minor undertaking. The road was wild, rough and a continuous upgrade. The Outskirts of Jerusalem When the pilgrim crowds reached the vicinity of Jerusalem, it was necessary that a camp be made before the sun went down and darkness settled over the land. Historical records indicate that on the eve of the Passover there were vast numbers of pilgrims in and around Jerusalem. Some estimates run as high as a million. The city of Jerusalem certainly did not have accommodations to handle so many people; therefore, it was necessary for the people to camp wherever they could find room. The campsites had to be prepared and the booths (or tents) erected, which served as temporary shelters, after the destination was reached. It would frequently require several hours for a family to find a suitable campsite and to get properly settled down for the night. The purpose in considering the details of the journey from Jericho to Jerusalem is to help us understand today that it would have been next to impossible for a group of traveling pilgrims to leave Jericho in the morning and arrive in Jerusalem on the same day. It took a minimum of two days to make the trip. And this fact has an important bearing on establishing the day of the week as well as the day of the month on which our Messiah's last journey to Jerusalem was made. Messianic Expectations When our Messiah began His journey to Jerusalem to keep the Feast of the Passover as the true Paschal Lamb, a relatively small company followed Him. By the time He reached Jericho, the band of disciples had been joined by other religious pilgrims who also were headed for Jerusalem to keep the Passover. Having seen and heard of the miracles performed by Yah’shua, many in this assorted company expected Yah’shua to openly declare Himself as the Messiah when He reached Jerusalem. They anticipated the Roman yoke being thrown off by a force of arms, aided by a display of supernatural miracles from the Messiah Himself. Thus by the time the group reached Jerusalem, Messianic hopes were running high, and the stage was set for a triumphal march into the city. Entry into Jerusalem "On the Next Day" The Apostle John tells us of our Messiah's arrival at Bethany after His long journey along the Jericho road. Leaving most of the traveling party at the outskirts of Jerusalem, Yah’shua and His disciples went to nearby Bethany.
"Then Yah’shua six days before the
Passover came to Bethany, where Lazarus was which had been dead, whom
he raised from the dead. There they made him a supper; and Martha
served: but Lazarus was one of them that sat at the table with him."
The last eight miles on the Jericho road were the steepest part of the uphill grade; so we can be sure that our Messiah and His party were quite weary when they arrived at the home of Mary, Martha and Lazarus. They certainly must have appreciated the supper that was prepared as a token of their great love.
Notice, however,
"On the next day much people that were come to the feast, when they heard that Yah’shua was coming to Jerusalem, Took branches of palm trees, and went forth to meet him, and cried, Hosanna: Blessed is the King of Israel that cometh in the name of Yah’shua. And Yah’shua, when he had found a young ass, sat thereon; as it is written, Fear not, daughter of Sion: behold, thy King cometh, sitting on an ass's colt." The basis for what is known by traditional “Christians” as Palm Sunday is found in this passage. It is generally, but erroneously taught that the triumphal entry occurred on the first day of the week, and that by observing Palm Sunday, Christians are commemorating the first significant event in the crucifixion week. Verse 12 definitely states that the so-called triumphal entry took place "on the next day", after our Messiah's arrival in Bethany. If this occurred on the first day of the week, then the preceding day was the seventh day of the week. In other words, Yah’shua completed His journey from Jericho on the Sabbath. One thing that was deeply ingrained in the consciences of the Hebrews of that day was the Sabbath. The Rabbinical laws of the Sabbath had been worked out to the minutest detail, one of which pertained to the "Sabbath day's journey."
The Sabbath day's journey is mentioned
only in
We know from secular records that some flexibility was allowed in the length of the Sabbath day's journey to permit Passover pilgrims encamped on the outskirts to come into Jerusalem. The walls of Jerusalem were considered as extended to encircle the encamped pilgrims during this season. The man-made regulation always permitted travel to any point within the city wall, since the Sabbath day's journey was considered to end at the city gate.
Bethany is fifteen furlongs (about 1 7/8
miles) from the actual walls of Jerusalem.
But, a long eight-mile journey toward Jerusalem along the Jericho road by Yah’shua and all who were with Him would have been a clear violation of the Sabbath laws as most Hebrews understood them. Furthermore, the supper that Martha and Mary had prepared for Yah’shua on the day of His journey (if that day was a Sabbath day) would have placed them in violation of the Sabbath. The penalty for Sabbath violation was stoning to death by command of the religious authorities. These facts lead to only one valid conclusion: the journey from Jericho was not made on a Sabbath day. Therefore, the triumphal entry could not have been made on a Sunday! 3. First Century Hebrew Traditions The observance of the Passover recalls Israel's deliverance from Egypt and the beginning of her national life. But in a much deeper sense, the Passover foreshadowed the sacrifice of that true, spotless Lamb of Yahweh, slain on Calvary's tree for the sins of the world. The Law of the Passover
Yahweh's law of the Passover is
considered in three books of the Pentateuch: Exodus, Leviticus and
Numbers. Three specific days are mentioned in conjunction with the
observance of the Passover Feast. The first date of importance is the
tenth of Nisan, the first month of the Hebrew year, which in Moses'
day was known as Abib. This is the date on which the Israelites were
to select their Paschal lamb. "In the tenth day of this month they
shall take to them every man a lamb."
The next important date is the
fourteenth of Nisan.
The Passover lamb was to be slain on the fourteenth. However, God's instructions permitted some tolerance as to the exact time of the slaying of the sacrifice, and this is extremely significant. The literal translation of the last clause of verse 6 is "between the evenings," not "in the evening." According to Hebrew reckoning, a day begins at sunset. So the fourteenth of Nisan begins at 6 PM on the day we would call the thirteenth. And the fourteenth ends and the fifteenth begins at 6 PM on the following day, the day we would consider as the fourteenth. Therefore, the Passover extends from sunset on the thirteenth to sunset on the fourteenth as Romans reckon it. In the observance of the first Passover, Yahweh specifically instructed Moses that the lamb was to be slain in the evening of the fourteenth, which was the evening that ushered in the day of the fourteenth. The Hebrew custom down through the centuries, therefore, was to slay the lamb early in the evening of the fourteenth of Nisan (which actually was done late in the afternoon of the thirteenth) and partake of it at the Paschal supper, which was on the evening preceding the day of Nisan fourteenth. Thus Yahweh made provision for His Son, the true Paschal Lamb, to partake of the symbolic Paschal lamb on the evening of the fourteenth and still offer Himself as an acceptable sacrifice before the setting of the sun on the day of Nisan fourteenth. Yahweh's way is perfect just as His Word is perfect.
Immediately upon the setting of the sun
upon the day of the fourteenth of Nisan, the fifteenth of Nisan began.
And according to
The nation of Israel was given a number of Sabbath days, among which the seventh-day Sabbath was only one type. The other Sabbaths, such as the fifteenth of Nisan, were considered to be "high" days; that is, they had even more significance than the regular seventh-day Sabbaths.
One of the main reasons the Christian
church holds to a Friday crucifixion is because the crucifixion day
was followed by a Sabbath. Early church leaders jumped to the
conclusion that this was a seventh-day Sabbath without carefully
consulting the Scriptures. The Old Covenant clearly teaches that every
Nisan fifteenth was a Sabbath--and a high Sabbath at that. But
Modifications to the Passover When Israel was finally settled in Palestine, there was a modification in the manner the Passover Feast was observed. For instance, in our Messiah's day the Passover was no longer eaten in a standing position. Instead, it was eaten in a reclining position just as the regular meals. In the days of our Messiah, it had become customary to kill the Passover lambs on the afternoon of the thirteenth of Nisan rather than on the evening of the fourteenth. Josephus, the Hebrew historian, tells us that there were sometimes as many as 250,000 lambs slain on the occasion of the Passover. It was necessary that the lambs be slain by the priests in the temple. We can imagine the momentous traffic jam that resulted from this and we can well appreciate that several hours of time would be required to sacrifice all these lambs. So the killing of the Passover lambs began about two or three o'clock in the afternoon of Nisan thirteenth. Then by five to five-thirty in the afternoon, all the lambs were slain. Josephus confirms that in the years just before the time of Titus's destruction of Jerusalem, in 70 A.D., it was customary to slay the lambs between the ninth and eleventh hour (that is, between 3:00 PM and 5:00 PM). At sundown on the thirteenth of Nisan, the fourteenth began. The lamb had been prepared, and when the roasting was complete, the participants gathered around the table and ate the Passover supper. Yahweh's law of the Passover and Feast of Unleavened Bread calls the fourteenth of the month Nisan "the Passover." However, by the time of our Messiah, the Hebrews had come to call this day the "Preparation day." To them the major feast day, the "high" day, was the fifteenth of Nisan, the day the Scriptures designate as the first day of Unleavened Bread. So at the time of our Messiah's crucifixion, the fourteenth of Nisan, the day on which the Passover lamb was eaten, was called the day of "Preparation." The following day (the high Sabbath day, the fifteenth of Nisan) was called the "Passover day," although this was actually the first day of the Feast of Unleavened Bread.
This modification is confirmed by
4. The Time of the Resurrection In developing the chronology of the crucifixion week, there is one event that we can definitely associate with a particular day of the week. That event is the resurrection of our Messiah . He is Risen
"And when the Sabbath was past, Mary
Magdalene, and Mary the mother of James, and Salome, had bought sweet
spices, that they might come and anoint him. And very early in the
morning the first day of the week, they came unto the sepulcher at the
rising of the sun. And they said among themselves, Who shall roll us
away the stone from the door of the sepulcher? And when they looked,
they saw that the stone was rolled away: for it was very great. And
entering into the sepulcher, they saw a young man sitting on the right
side, clothed in a long white garment; and they were affrighted. And
he said unto them, Be not affrighted: Ye seek Yah’shua of Nazareth,
which was crucified: he is risen; he is not here: behold the place
where they laid him."
This passage records the discovery of our Messiah's resurrection and tells us the time of this discovery. More literally translated, this passage reads as follows: "And the Sabbath being past, Mary Magdalene, Mary the (mother) of James, and Salome brought aromatics, that having come, they might anoint him. And very early on the first (day) of the week, they come upon the tomb, the sun having risen." This account shows that this visit came very early on a Sunday morning.
The same incident is recorded in
"The first day of the week cometh Mary
Magdalene early, when it was yet dark, unto the sepulcher, and seeth
the stone taken away from the sepulcher. Then she runneth, and cometh
to Simon Peter, and to the other disciple, whom Yah’shua loved, and
saith unto them, They have taken away Yah’shua out of the sepulcher,
and we know not where they have laid him."
Note carefully that none of these Gospel reports describe our Messiah's resurrection. These passages tell of the discovery of the empty tomb when the women came to anoint Yah’shua's body very early on a Sunday morning. The resurrection had already taken place sometime prior to this event. The idea that the resurrection took place at sunrise on a Sunday morning is not Scriptural. All three Gospels positively state that as early as the time was--even while it was "yet dark"--Yah’shua had already risen. The Sabbath is Ended We could know for certain when the resurrection of our Messiah happened if we had just one definite witness to the exact hour of its occurrence. Well, Yahweh has seen fit to give us this witness in the Gospel of Matthew. "In the end of the Sabbath, as it began to dawn toward the first day of the week, came Mary Magdalene and the other Mary to see the sepulcher. And, behold, there was a great earthquake: for the angel of Yah’shua descended from heaven, and came and rolled back the stone from the door, and sat upon it." Matt. 28:1-2. Matthew described an event that seems to have occurred very closely in conjunction with the actual resurrection. This is the earthquake that took place when the angel descended from heaven to roll back the stone from the door of the tomb. Matthew's emphasis here is upon the descent of the angel and the accompanying earthquake. The time of this event is set by the opening phrase "in the end of the Sabbath." This designates a specific time of the day.
The word translated "began to dawn" in
Dr. George R. Berry in his Interlinear
Greek-English New Covenant translates the opening part of
The resurrection occurred at the "end of the Sabbath," just as the first day of the week was beginning, which according to Hebrew reckoning would have been sunset on Saturday, or around 6 PM.
Certainly the stone would not have been
rolled away from the tomb before our Messiah arose from the dead.
Furthermore,
Prophetic Requirements
The requirements of prophecy also help
us to pinpoint some of the key events of the crucifixion week.
Yah’shua Himself prophesied that He would be resurrected on the third
day.
According to Hebrew reckoning, the setting of the sun marked the end of the day, but that point in time, sunset, was also a part of that day. However, sunset also marked the beginning of the next day and was part of that day also! So the Messiah was also resurrected on the first day of the week, without this making any conflict with Scripture.
There is another prophecy that required
Yah’shua to be resurrected on the first day of the week. The Apostle
Paul wrote in I Corinthians 15:20, "But now is the Messiah risen from
the dead, and become the firstfruits of them that slept." in His
resurrection fulfilled the law of the firstfruits.
The evidence that our Messiah was resurrected at sunset at the end of Saturday and the beginning of Sunday is overwhelming. Only this exact point in time permits our Messiah's resurrection to literally fulfill the prophecy for three seemingly incompatible situations: (1) resurrection after "three days and three nights in the heart of the earth," (2) resurrection "on the third day," and (3) resurrection on the first day of the week--"the morrow after the Sabbath." 5. Two Key Days The most important day in conjunction with the crucifixion week is obviously the day of resurrection, which we have seen is the end of Saturday and the beginning of Sunday (Nisan 18). However, there are two other key days that we need to investigate from a Scriptural position before we can unfold the chronology of the crucifixion week. "Good Wednesday"
"Now upon the first day of the week,
very early in the morning, they came unto the sepulcher, bringing the
spices which they had prepared, and certain others with them. And they
found the stone rolled away from the sepulcher. And they entered in,
and found not the body of Yah’shua."
Since it has been shown from the Word of Yahweh that the resurrection took place at sundown on the day that we would call Saturday, the traditional "Good Friday" myth can be dispelled once and for all. All arguments supporting a Friday crucifixion evaporate when we come to this realization. Furthermore, we can unreservedly apply the prophetic typology of Jonah, who was (according to our Messiah's words) in the belly of the great fish for "three days and three nights." And this definitely fixes Wednesday as the day our Messiah was crucified and buried.
Yah’shua died about three o'clock in the
afternoon.
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